Figure 7 shows the stages of facial reconstruction

It appears teeth 13, 15, 16, 24, 27, 31, 36, 42, and 46 were removed at sometime before death because they have experienced time to heal over.

These forensic age estimation methods conclude that this individual might be anywhere between 25 and 48.1 years of age. Nonetheless, after combining all results and analysing their accuracy and credibility, it’s likely that this individual is between 32 and 43 years of age.

Facial reconstruction

During facial reconstruction, 16 osteometric points were measured and attached to the skull, then, facial muscles, features, fat and skin were made from wax to make a possible antemortem type of this individual- see figure 7. After completion, it had been clear that this individual was a male having a really prominent jaw and forehead which links to previous conclusions.

C

B

A

Figure 7 shows the stages of facial reconstruction. A) shows the skull with osteometric points in position, B) shows the addition of some facial muscles, eyeball and nose, and C) shows the final, completed facial reconstruction.

regardless of this, as this is an artistic interpretation completed with a number of untrained individuals with no soft tissue or portrait to get results alongside, this process is extremely subjective and so not so reliable at recreating an individual’s morphological characteristics for identification. Therefore, this may be improved using computerised 3D facial reconstruction.

DNA profiling

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP), a very reproducible DNA profiling technique, was completed to spot the common D1S80 variable nucleotide tandem repeat in this individual’s DNA sample and in comparison to those of 7 missing people. Nonetheless, absence of any bands in this individual’s DNA sample, shown in figure 10, prevents matching to known genotypes. This may be because of poor primer specificity or synthesis or inadequate, faulty DNA within the sample (McPherson, Quirke & Taylor, 1992).

Figure 10 shows the outcomes from 2% agarose gel electrophoresis associated with PCR items. Lane 1 and 12 – 100bp ladder; 2- water control; 3- DNA sample A; 4- DNA sample B; 5- DNA sample C; 6- this individuals DNA sample; 7- DNA sample D; 8- DNA sample E; 9- DNA sample F;   10- DNA sample G; 11- water.

Therefore, to locate a match, AFLP is repeated ensuring there was adequate, unfragmented DNA along with a suitable, high specificity primer. Primer dimers at the end of lane 9 suggests the primer concentration was excessive, therefore, to prevent allelic dropout which might assume homozygosity, lower concentrations is used when repeating.

AFLP requires high quality and number of DNA to prevent allelic dropout, nonetheless, it’s likely that this can not be achieved using this DNA sample. Therefore, DNA-17 might provide greater results since it requires less DNA because of improved sensitivity and discrimination between profiles (Crown Prosecution Service, 2019).

Conclusion

After analysing all results, it’s possible to estimate it was a European male aged between 32 and 43 who had been 174cm tall, managing acromegaly. The likely reason for death is co-morbidity associated with acromegaly progression. Regrettably, these conclusions can not be confirmed through DNA fingerprinting which reduces validation and reliability, therefore, further analysis to verify this individual’s identity could consist of more reliable methods involving molecular biology and bone chemistry.

Recommendations

• Albanese, J., (2003).  A Metric Method for Sex Determination utilizing the Hipbone while the Femur. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 48(2), 2001378. Available from: doi:10.1520/jfs2001378.
• Bass, W., (1978). Individual osteology. Columbia, Mo., Missouri Archaeological Society, 196-208.
• Black, T., (1978). Sexual dimorphism within the tooth-crown diameters associated with deciduous teeth. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 48(1), 77-82. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330480111.
• Brooks, S. and Suchey, J., (1990). Skeletal age determination in line with the os pubis: an evaluation associated with Acsádi-Nemeskéri and Suchey-Brooks techniques. Human Evolution. 5(3), 227-238. Available from: doi:10.1007/bf02437238.
• Carr, L., (1962). Eruption ages of permanent teeth. Australian Dental Journal. 7(5), 367-373. Available from: doi:10.1111/j.1834-7819.1962.tb04884.x.
• Chapman, I., (2017). Gigantism and Acromegaly – Hormonal and Metabolic Disorders – MSD Manual Consumer Version. [Online]. 2017. MSD Manual Consumer Version. Available from: https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/home/hormonal-and-metabolic-disorders/pituitary-gland-disorders/gigantism-and-acromegaly [Accessed: 27 April 2019].
• Church, MS., (1995). Determination of Race from the Skeleton through Forensic Anthropological techniques. Forensic Science Review. 7(1), 1-39
• Crown Prosecution Service., (2019). DNA-17 Profiling. [Online]. 2019. Crown Prosecution Service. Available from: https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/dna-17-profiling [Accessed: 5 May 2019].
• Ferembach, D., (1980). Tips for age and sex diagnoses of skeletons. Journal of Human Evolution. 9(7), 517-549. Available from: doi:10.1016/0047-2484(80)90061-5.
• Giles, E. and Elliot, O., (1963). Sex determination by discriminant function analysis of crania. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 21(1), 53-68. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330210108
• Giles, E., (1970). Discriminant function sexing associated with human being skeleton. Personal Identification in Mass Disasters. In Stewart TD (ed.)99-107.
• Krogman, W., (1962). The human being skeleton in forensic medicine. American Journal of Orthodontics. 49(6), 474. Available from: doi:10.1016/0002-9416(63)90175-1.
• McPherson, M., Quirke, P. & Taylor, G., (1992). PCR: a practical approach. Oxford, IRL.
• Meindl, R. and Lovejoy, C., (1985). Ectocranial suture closure: A revised way of the determination of skeletal age at death in line with the lateral-anterior sutures. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 68(1), 57-66. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330680106.
• Miles, A., (1963). Dentition within the Estimation of Age. Journal of Dental Research. 42(1), 255-263. Available from: doi:10.1177/00220345630420012701
• Molleson, T and Cox, M., (1993). The Spitalfields Project, Vol. 2: The Anthropology. The Middling Sort, Research Report 86. Council for British Archaeology: York.
• NIDDK., (2012). Acromegaly | NIDDK. [online] National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Offered at: https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/endocrine-diseases/acromegaly [Viewed 21 April 2019].
• Phenice, T., (1969). A newly developed visual way of sexing the os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 30(2), 297-301. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330300214.
• Rissech, C., Estabrook, G., Cunha, E. and Malgosa, A., (2006). Using the Acetabulum to Estimate Age at Death of Adult Males*. Journal of Forensic Sciences.  51(2), 213-229. Available from: doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2006.00060.x
• Scheuer, L. & Black, S., (2004). The juvenile skeleton. London, Elsevier Academic Press.
• Sutherland, L. and Suchey, J., (1991) Use of the Ventral Arc in Pubic Sex Determination. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 36(2), 13051J. Available from: doi:10.1520/jfs13051j.
• Todd, T., (1921). Age changes in the pubic bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 4(1), 1-70. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330040102
• Trotter, M., (1970). Estimation of stature from intact long limb bones, in Stewart, T.D. (ed.), Personal Identification in Mass Disasters: National Museum of Natural History, Washington, 71-83.

essay on biology subject

Appendices

Appendix A

Feature	Measurement (mm)
Cranial length	187.22
Cranial breadth	111.47
Basion-bregma height	138.67
Bizygomatic breadth	131.39
Basion prosthion length	121.63
Nasion-prosthion line	68.21
Maxillo-alveolar breadth	67.25
Height associated with processus mastoideus	36.67

These measurements were then inputted to the formula below to find out sex from the skull.

Discriminant function formula (Giles & Elliot, 1963):

(Cranial length*3.107) + (Cranial breadth*-4.643) + (Basion-bregma height*5.786) + (bizygomatic breadth*14.821) + (Basion prosthion length*1.000) + (Nasion-prosthion line*2.714) + (Maxillo-alveolar breadth*-5.179) + (Height of this processus mastoideus*6.071)

If result is larger than 2676.39, the in-patient is male, if smaller than 2676.39, the in-patient is female.

Appendix B

Feature	Measurement (mm)
Hipbone height (A)	212
Iliac breadth (B)	161
Pubis length (C)	71.675
Ischium length (D)	88.41
Femur head diameter (E)	45.45
Epicondylar breadth of femur (F)	75.26

There measurements where then inputted to the formula below Albanese’s (2003) to find out sex from the pelvis and femur.

Probability M/F=1(1+e–Z)

Model 1, Z = -61.5345 + (0.595*A) – (0.5192*B) – (1.1104*D) + (1.1696*E) + (0.5893*F)

Model 2, Z = -40.5313 + (0.2572*A) – (0.9852*C) + (0.7303*E) + (0.3177*F)

Model 3, Z = -30.359 + (0.4323*A) – (0.2217*B) – (0.7404*C) + (0.3412*D)

If P is more than 0.5, the in-patient is male, if P is not as much as 0.5, the in-patient is female.

Appendix C

variety of corresponding states and ages for every associated with 7 acetabulum variables Rissech’s (2006)

1. Acetabular groove
   • State 1 – predicted age: 41.6
2. Acetabular rim shape
   • State 3 – predicted age: 45.9
3. Acetabular rim porosity
   • State 2 – predicted age: 39
4. Apex activity
   • State 1 – predicted age: 38.2
5. Activity in the external edge of the acetabular fossa
   • State 2 – predicted age: 32.3
6. Activity associated with acetabular fossa
   • State 3 – predicted age: 48.1
7. Porosities associated with acetabular fossa Share this: Facebook Twitter Reddit LinkedIn WhatsApp  

nonetheless, cranial suture closure is recognized as unreliable and inaccurate since it often under‐ages older adults and over‐ages sub-adults (Molleson and Cox 1993). Furthermore, this individual’s acromegaly caused exorbitant outgrowth of bone across the sutures, potentially affecting their closure and, thus, impacting age determination. As a result, a far more reliable way of ageing the skull involves considering dentition.

Teeth would be the least destructible area of the human body, making them exceptional for age estimation. No deciduous dentition and proof of tooth 8 alveolar processes indicate this individual was at least 18 years of age (Carr, 1962). Dental wear analysis provides more accurate age determination than those earlier mentioned since it examines enamel which can not be remodelled. a widely used method involves analysing of mandibular molar wear (Miles 1963), nevertheless, as shown in figure 5 and 6, exorbitant ante- and postmortem tooth loss means only two mandibular molars can be found, preventing any valid age estimation.

 

Figure 5, photographs showing mandibular (A) and maxillary (B) dentition. 1) identifies the websites of postmortem tooth loss, 2) shows antemortem tooth loss, 3) shows alveolar processes of molar 3 and 4) shows regions of decay.

Figure 6, utilizing the University of Sheffield dental chart, shows which teeth are present, that have been extracted and any fractures seen. It appears teeth 13, 15, 16, 24, 27, 31, 36, 42, and 46 were removed at sometime before death because they have experienced time to heal over.

These forensic age estimation methods conclude that this individual might be anywhere between 25 and 48.1 years of age. Nonetheless, after combining all results and analysing their accuracy and credibility, it’s likely that this individual is between 32 and 43 years of age.

Facial reconstruction

During facial reconstruction, 16 osteometric points were measured and attached to the skull, then, facial muscles, features, fat and skin were made from wax to make a possible antemortem type of this individual- see figure 7. After completion, it had been clear that this individual was a male having a really prominent jaw and forehead which links to previous conclusions.

C

B

A

Figure 7 shows the stages of facial reconstruction. A) shows the skull with osteometric points in position, B) shows the addition of some facial muscles, eyeball and nose, and C) shows the final, completed facial reconstruction.

regardless of this, as this is an artistic interpretation completed with a number of untrained individuals with no soft tissue or portrait to get results alongside, this process is extremely subjective and so not so reliable at recreating an individual’s morphological characteristics for identification. Therefore, this may be improved using computerised 3D facial reconstruction.

DNA profiling

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP), a very reproducible DNA profiling technique, was completed to spot the common D1S80 variable nucleotide tandem repeat in this individual’s DNA sample and in comparison to those of 7 missing people. Nonetheless, absence of any bands in this individual’s DNA sample, shown in figure 10, prevents matching to known genotypes. This may be because of poor primer specificity or synthesis or inadequate, faulty DNA within the sample (McPherson, Quirke & Taylor, 1992).

Figure 10 shows the outcomes from 2% agarose gel electrophoresis associated with PCR items. Lane 1 and 12 – 100bp ladder; 2- water control; 3- DNA sample A; 4- DNA sample B; 5- DNA sample C; 6- this individuals DNA sample; 7- DNA sample D; 8- DNA sample E; 9- DNA sample F;   10- DNA sample G; 11- water.

Therefore, to locate a match, AFLP is repeated ensuring there was adequate, unfragmented DNA along with a suitable, high specificity primer. Primer dimers at the end of lane 9 suggests the primer concentration was excessive, therefore, to prevent allelic dropout which might assume homozygosity, lower concentrations is used when repeating.

AFLP requires high quality and number of DNA to prevent allelic dropout, nonetheless, it’s likely that this can not be achieved using this DNA sample. Therefore, DNA-17 might provide greater results since it requires less DNA because of improved sensitivity and discrimination between profiles (Crown Prosecution Service, 2019).

Conclusion

After analysing all results, it’s possible to estimate it was a European male aged between 32 and 43 who had been 174cm tall, managing acromegaly. The likely reason for death is co-morbidity associated with acromegaly progression. Regrettably, these conclusions can not be confirmed through DNA fingerprinting which reduces validation and reliability, therefore, further analysis to verify this individual’s identity could consist of more reliable methods involving molecular biology and bone chemistry.

Recommendations

• Albanese, J., (2003).  A Metric Method for Sex Determination utilizing the Hipbone while the Femur. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 48(2), 2001378. Available from: doi:10.1520/jfs2001378.
• Bass, W., (1978). Individual osteology. Columbia, Mo., Missouri Archaeological Society, 196-208.
• Black, T., (1978). Sexual dimorphism within the tooth-crown diameters associated with deciduous teeth. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 48(1), 77-82. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330480111.
• Brooks, S. and Suchey, J., (1990). Skeletal age determination in line with the os pubis: an evaluation associated with Acsádi-Nemeskéri and Suchey-Brooks techniques. Human Evolution. 5(3), 227-238. Available from: doi:10.1007/bf02437238.
• Carr, L., (1962). Eruption ages of permanent teeth. Australian Dental Journal. 7(5), 367-373. Available from: doi:10.1111/j.1834-7819.1962.tb04884.x.
• Chapman, I., (2017). Gigantism and Acromegaly – Hormonal and Metabolic Disorders – MSD Manual Consumer Version. [Online]. 2017. MSD Manual Consumer Version. Available from: https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/home/hormonal-and-metabolic-disorders/pituitary-gland-disorders/gigantism-and-acromegaly [Accessed: 27 April 2019].
• Church, MS., (1995). Determination of Race from the Skeleton through Forensic Anthropological techniques. Forensic Science Review. 7(1), 1-39
• Crown Prosecution Service., (2019). DNA-17 Profiling. [Online]. 2019. Crown Prosecution Service. Available from: https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/dna-17-profiling [Accessed: 5 May 2019].
• Ferembach, D., (1980). Tips for age and sex diagnoses of skeletons. Journal of Human Evolution. 9(7), 517-549. Available from: doi:10.1016/0047-2484(80)90061-5.
• Giles, E. and Elliot, O., (1963). Sex determination by discriminant function analysis of crania. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 21(1), 53-68. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330210108
• Giles, E., (1970). Discriminant function sexing associated with human being skeleton. Personal Identification in Mass Disasters. In Stewart TD (ed.)99-107.
• Krogman, W., (1962). The human being skeleton in forensic medicine. American Journal of Orthodontics. 49(6), 474. Available from: doi:10.1016/0002-9416(63)90175-1.
• McPherson, M., Quirke, P. & Taylor, G., (1992). PCR: a practical approach. Oxford, IRL.
• Meindl, R. and Lovejoy, C., (1985). Ectocranial suture closure: A revised way of the determination of skeletal age at death in line with the lateral-anterior sutures. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 68(1), 57-66. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330680106.
• Miles, A., (1963). Dentition within the Estimation of Age. Journal of Dental Research. 42(1), 255-263. Available from: doi:10.1177/00220345630420012701
• Molleson, T and Cox, M., (1993). The Spitalfields Project, Vol. 2: The Anthropology. The Middling Sort, Research Report 86. Council for British Archaeology: York.
• NIDDK., (2012). Acromegaly | NIDDK. [online] National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Offered at: https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/endocrine-diseases/acromegaly [Viewed 21 April 2019].
• Phenice, T., (1969). A newly developed visual way of sexing the os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 30(2), 297-301. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330300214.
• Rissech, C., Estabrook, G., Cunha, E. and Malgosa, A., (2006). Using the Acetabulum to Estimate Age at Death of Adult Males*. Journal of Forensic Sciences.  51(2), 213-229. Available from: doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2006.00060.x
• Scheuer, L. & Black, S., (2004). The juvenile skeleton. London, Elsevier Academic Press.
• Sutherland, L. and Suchey, J., (1991) Use of the Ventral Arc in Pubic Sex Determination. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 36(2), 13051J. Available from: doi:10.1520/jfs13051j.
• Todd, T., (1921). Age changes in the pubic bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 4(1), 1-70. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330040102
• Trotter, M., (1970). Estimation of stature from intact long limb bones, in Stewart, T.D. (ed.), Personal Identification in Mass Disasters: National Museum of Natural History, Washington, 71-83.

Appendices

Appendix A

Feature	Measurement (mm)
Cranial length	187.22
Cranial breadth	111.47
Basion-bregma height	138.67
Bizygomatic breadth	131.39
Basion prosthion length	121.63
Nasion-prosthion line	68.21
Maxillo-alveolar breadth	67.25
Height associated with processus mastoideus	36.67

These measurements were then inputted to the formula below to find out sex from the skull.

Discriminant function formula (Giles & Elliot, 1963):

(Cranial length*3.107) + (Cranial breadth*-4.643) + (Basion-bregma height*5.786) + (bizygomatic breadth*14.821) + (Basion prosthion length*1.000) + (Nasion-prosthion line*2.714) + (Maxillo-alveolar breadth*-5.179) + (Height of this processus mastoideus*6.071)

If result is larger than 2676.39, the in-patient is male, if smaller than 2676.39, the in-patient is female.

Appendix B

Feature	Measurement (mm)
Hipbone height (A)	212
Iliac breadth (B)	161
Pubis length (C)	71.675
Ischium length (D)	88.41
Femur head diameter (E)	45.45
Epicondylar breadth of femur (F)	75.26

There measurements where then inputted to the formula below Albanese’s (2003) to find out sex from the pelvis and femur.

Probability M/F=1(1+e–Z)

Model 1, Z = -61.5345 + (0.595*A) – (0.5192*B) – (1.1104*D) + (1.1696*E) + (0.5893*F)

Model 2, Z = -40.5313 + (0.2572*A) – (0.9852*C) + (0.7303*E) + (0.3177*F)

Model 3, Z = -30.359 + (0.4323*A) – (0.2217*B) – (0.7404*C) + (0.3412*D)

If P is more than 0.5, the in-patient is male, if P is not as much as 0.5, the in-patient is female.

Appendix C

variety of corresponding states and ages for every associated with 7 acetabulum variables Rissech’s (2006)

1. Acetabular groove
   • State 1 – predicted age: 41.6
2. Acetabular rim shape
   • State 3 – predicted age: 45.9
3. Acetabular rim porosity
   • State 2 – predicted age: 39
4. Apex activity
   • State 1 – predicted age: 38.2
5. Activity in the external edge of the acetabular fossa
   • State 2 – predicted age: 32.3
6. Activity associated with acetabular fossa
   • State 3 – predicted age: 48.1
7. Porosities associated with acetabular fossa Share this: Facebook Twitter Reddit LinkedIn WhatsApp  

Teeth would be the least destructible area of the human body, making them exceptional for age estimation. No deciduous dentition and proof of tooth 8 alveolar processes indicate this individual was at least 18 years of age (Carr, 1962). Dental wear analysis provides more accurate age determination than those earlier mentioned since it examines enamel which can not be remodelled. a widely used method involves analysing of mandibular molar wear (Miles 1963), nevertheless, as shown in figure 5 and 6, exorbitant ante- and postmortem tooth loss means only two mandibular molars can be found, preventing any valid age estimation.

 

Figure 5, photographs showing mandibular (A) and maxillary (B) dentition. 1) identifies the websites of postmortem tooth loss, 2) shows antemortem tooth loss, 3) shows alveolar processes of molar 3 and 4) shows regions of decay.

Figure 6, utilizing the University of Sheffield dental chart, shows which teeth are present, that have been extracted and any fractures seen. It appears teeth 13, 15, 16, 24, 27, 31, 36, 42, and 46 were removed at sometime before death because they have experienced time to heal over.

These forensic age estimation methods conclude that this individual might be anywhere between 25 and 48.1 years of age. Nonetheless, after combining all results and analysing their accuracy and credibility, it’s likely that this individual is between 32 and 43 years of age.

Facial reconstruction

During facial reconstruction, 16 osteometric points were measured and attached to the skull, then, facial muscles, features, fat and skin were made from wax to make a possible antemortem type of this individual- see figure 7. After completion, it had been clear that this individual was a male having a really prominent jaw and forehead which links to previous conclusions.

C

B

A

Figure 7 shows the stages of facial reconstruction. A) shows the skull with osteometric points in position, B) shows the addition of some facial muscles, eyeball and nose, and C) shows the final, completed facial reconstruction.

regardless of this, as this is an artistic interpretation completed with a number of untrained individuals with no soft tissue or portrait to get results alongside, this process is extremely subjective and so not so reliable at recreating an individual’s morphological characteristics for identification. Therefore, this may be improved using computerised 3D facial reconstruction.

DNA profiling

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP), a very reproducible DNA profiling technique, was completed to spot the common D1S80 variable nucleotide tandem repeat in this individual’s DNA sample and in comparison to those of 7 missing people. Nonetheless, absence of any bands in this individual’s DNA sample, shown in figure 10, prevents matching to known genotypes. This may be because of poor primer specificity or synthesis or inadequate, faulty DNA within the sample (McPherson, Quirke & Taylor, 1992).

Figure 10 shows the outcomes from 2% agarose gel electrophoresis associated with PCR items. Lane 1 and 12 – 100bp ladder; 2- water control; 3- DNA sample A; 4- DNA sample B; 5- DNA sample C; 6- this individuals DNA sample; 7- DNA sample D; 8- DNA sample E; 9- DNA sample F;   10- DNA sample G; 11- water.

Therefore, to locate a match, AFLP is repeated ensuring there was adequate, unfragmented DNA along with a suitable, high specificity primer. Primer dimers at the end of lane 9 suggests the primer concentration was excessive, therefore, to prevent allelic dropout which might assume homozygosity, lower concentrations is used when repeating.

AFLP requires high quality and number of DNA to prevent allelic dropout, nonetheless, it’s likely that this can not be achieved using this DNA sample. Therefore, DNA-17 might provide greater results since it requires less DNA because of improved sensitivity and discrimination between profiles (Crown Prosecution Service, 2019).

Conclusion

After analysing all results, it’s possible to estimate it was a European male aged between 32 and 43 who had been 174cm tall, managing acromegaly. The likely reason for death is co-morbidity associated with acromegaly progression. Regrettably, these conclusions can not be confirmed through DNA fingerprinting which reduces validation and reliability, therefore, further analysis to verify this individual’s identity could consist of more reliable methods involving molecular biology and bone chemistry.

Recommendations

• Albanese, J., (2003).  A Metric Method for Sex Determination utilizing the Hipbone while the Femur. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 48(2), 2001378. Available from: doi:10.1520/jfs2001378.
• Bass, W., (1978). Individual osteology. Columbia, Mo., Missouri Archaeological Society, 196-208.
• Black, T., (1978). Sexual dimorphism within the tooth-crown diameters associated with deciduous teeth. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 48(1), 77-82. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330480111.
• Brooks, S. and Suchey, J., (1990). Skeletal age determination in line with the os pubis: an evaluation associated with Acsádi-Nemeskéri and Suchey-Brooks techniques. Human Evolution. 5(3), 227-238. Available from: doi:10.1007/bf02437238.
• Carr, L., (1962). Eruption ages of permanent teeth. Australian Dental Journal. 7(5), 367-373. Available from: doi:10.1111/j.1834-7819.1962.tb04884.x.
• Chapman, I., (2017). Gigantism and Acromegaly – Hormonal and Metabolic Disorders – MSD Manual Consumer Version. [Online]. 2017. MSD Manual Consumer Version. Available from: https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/home/hormonal-and-metabolic-disorders/pituitary-gland-disorders/gigantism-and-acromegaly [Accessed: 27 April 2019].
• Church, MS., (1995). Determination of Race from the Skeleton through Forensic Anthropological techniques. Forensic Science Review. 7(1), 1-39
• Crown Prosecution Service., (2019). DNA-17 Profiling. [Online]. 2019. Crown Prosecution Service. Available from: https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/dna-17-profiling [Accessed: 5 May 2019].
• Ferembach, D., (1980). Tips for age and sex diagnoses of skeletons. Journal of Human Evolution. 9(7), 517-549. Available from: doi:10.1016/0047-2484(80)90061-5.
• Giles, E. and Elliot, O., (1963). Sex determination by discriminant function analysis of crania. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 21(1), 53-68. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330210108
• Giles, E., (1970). Discriminant function sexing associated with human being skeleton. Personal Identification in Mass Disasters. In Stewart TD (ed.)99-107.
• Krogman, W., (1962). The human being skeleton in forensic medicine. American Journal of Orthodontics. 49(6), 474. Available from: doi:10.1016/0002-9416(63)90175-1.
• McPherson, M., Quirke, P. & Taylor, G., (1992). PCR: a practical approach. Oxford, IRL.
• Meindl, R. and Lovejoy, C., (1985). Ectocranial suture closure: A revised way of the determination of skeletal age at death in line with the lateral-anterior sutures. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 68(1), 57-66. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330680106.
• Miles, A., (1963). Dentition within the Estimation of Age. Journal of Dental Research. 42(1), 255-263. Available from: doi:10.1177/00220345630420012701
• Molleson, T and Cox, M., (1993). The Spitalfields Project, Vol. 2: The Anthropology. The Middling Sort, Research Report 86. Council for British Archaeology: York.
• NIDDK., (2012). Acromegaly | NIDDK. [online] National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Offered at: https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/endocrine-diseases/acromegaly [Viewed 21 April 2019].
• Phenice, T., (1969). A newly developed visual way of sexing the os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 30(2), 297-301. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330300214.
• Rissech, C., Estabrook, G., Cunha, E. and Malgosa, A., (2006). Using the Acetabulum to Estimate Age at Death of Adult Males*. Journal of Forensic Sciences.  51(2), 213-229. Available from: doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2006.00060.x
• Scheuer, L. & Black, S., (2004). The juvenile skeleton. London, Elsevier Academic Press.
• Sutherland, L. and Suchey, J., (1991) Use of the Ventral Arc in Pubic Sex Determination. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 36(2), 13051J. Available from: doi:10.1520/jfs13051j.
• Todd, T., (1921). Age changes in the pubic bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 4(1), 1-70. Available from: doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330040102
• Trotter, M., (1970). Estimation of stature from intact long limb bones, in Stewart, T.D. (ed.), Personal Identification in Mass Disasters: National Museum of Natural History, Washington, 71-83.

Appendices

Appendix A

Feature	Measurement (mm)
Cranial length	187.22
Cranial breadth	111.47
Basion-bregma height	138.67
Bizygomatic breadth	131.39
Basion prosthion length	121.63
Nasion-prosthion line	68.21
Maxillo-alveolar breadth	67.25
Height associated with processus mastoideus	36.67

These measurements were then inputted to the formula below to find out sex from the skull.

Discriminant function formula (Giles & Elliot, 1963):

(Cranial length*3.107) + (Cranial breadth*-4.643) + (Basion-bregma height*5.786) + (bizygomatic breadth*14.821) + (Basion prosthion length*1.000) + (Nasion-prosthion line*2.714) + (Maxillo-alveolar breadth*-5.179) + (Height of this processus mastoideus*6.071)

If result is larger than 2676.39, the in-patient is male, if smaller than 2676.39, the in-patient is female.

Appendix B

Feature	Measurement (mm)
Hipbone height (A)	212
Iliac breadth (B)	161
Pubis length (C)	71.675
Ischium length (D)	88.41
Femur head diameter (E)	45.45
Epicondylar breadth of femur (F)	75.26

There measurements where then inputted to the formula below Albanese’s (2003) to find out sex from the pelvis and femur.

Probability M/F=1(1+e–Z)

Model 1, Z = -61.5345 + (0.595*A) – (0.5192*B) – (1.1104*D) + (1.1696*E) + (0.5893*F)

Model 2, Z = -40.5313 + (0.2572*A) – (0.9852*C) + (0.7303*E) + (0.3177*F)

Model 3, Z = -30.359 + (0.4323*A) – (0.2217*B) – (0.7404*C) + (0.3412*D)

If P is more than 0.5, the in-patient is male, if P is not as much as 0.5, the in-patient is female.

Appendix C

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